AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CHALLENGES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS IN KENYA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Despite the significant advancements made by women in other professional fields, the domain of politics has not shown commensurate improvement. Undoubtedly, women have been noticeably underrepresented in decision-making and policy formation inside governments worldwide. According to Feldman et al. (2015), the concept of political engagement encompasses a combination of official and informal avenues. In a comprehensive sense, civic engagement encompasses a deep understanding of the political framework and mechanisms for participation, such as the exercise of suffrage, active participation in grassroots campaigns and governing institutions, equitable representation in both national and local governance, and the unfettered ability to advocate for interests via lobbying and collective voting endeavours. When evaluating the extent of women's involvement in political activities, it is crucial to take into account their engagement in informal political endeavours, especially within the community context. This includes their active participation in social networks, women's organisations, and civil society, particularly in situations where official avenues for political engagement are less accessible to women (UNICEF, 2006). Political engagement may take the form of political expression, which encompasses the rights that women hold, both officially and informally, to voice their discontent within their political and social milieu and to actively participate in all aspects of the political system. Political engagement may manifest itself at several levels, including the individual, home, community, national, and international spheres. The involvement of individuals and households encompasses various factors such as understanding of the political system, support from domestic and marital partners for political participation, engagement in decision-making related to household economics, reproduction, and health, personal drive to participate in community-level organisations and civil society, and the inclination to exercise the right to vote. Community involvement encompasses many activities such as active engagement in village assemblies and local initiatives, active support for particular causes or legislative measures, and assuming roles of representation and leadership within the local governance structure (Feldman et al., 2015). According to Almond and Verba (2015), it has been suggested that women make up more than half of the global population and play significant roles in the overall progress of society. Within the majority of civilizations, women are often engaged in five primary roles: those of a mother, producer, house manager, community organiser, and socio-cultural and political activist. Among the positions stated, the last one has been influenced by women's movements, which may be traced to past instances of gender discrimination and injustice. Prior to the advent of these social movements, gender roles were traditionally delineated between individuals of the male and female sexes. The roles may be categorised into two main categories: productive gender roles and reproductive gender roles. According to Cheeseman (2016), there is an ongoing argument that productive gender roles are mostly linked with males, whereas reproductive gender roles are exclusively fulfilled by females. The aforementioned sociological phenomenon was intrinsically connected to the cultural ideologies and principles prevalent throughout many global nations. According to Gĩthĩnji's (2015) findings, there is a noticeable trend across countries in terms of gender equality and the cultural importance attributed to males. Certain domains of action are often seen as being primarily or largely associated with men, hence resulting in their perceived significance being unduly emphasised from a moral standpoint. One could inquire as to the reasons for the limited representation of women in the realm of politics, as well as the observed disparities among different nations globally. One often cited reason is that the limited involvement of women in political leadership may be attributed to cultural, religious, and patriarchal traditions. Several countries, including Sweden, Argentina, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda, have seen significant advancements in political representation (Mati, 2015). Regrettably, this assertion does not hold true for several nations, since progress has been markedly sluggish in these regions. Moreover, some segments of the public, religious factions, and governmental entities continue to exhibit overt opposition towards the concept of women assuming political leadership roles. When examining empirical data from Western nations, prominent theories about the gender disparity in participation often emphasise the presence of structural disparities in the distribution of individual resources. These theories frequently highlight female employment as a pivotal element in understanding this phenomenon. According to Mukhongo (2015) and Willis (2015),... Cultural differences often centre on religion as a primary focal point (Norris, 2009). Nevertheless, while the gender disparity in political engagement is gradually diminishing in Western nations (Cheeseman, 2015), the little available research suggests that significant gender variations in mass political participation persist in developing countries. Several recent studies have examined the patterns of political participation in Africa and have observed that women tend to engage in voting and political activities between elections to a lesser degree than men, as argued by Cheeseman (2015) and Kuenzi and Lambright (2010). However, there is limited understanding of the applicability of the commonly proposed explanations mentioned above to the specific context of Kenya, particularly in Nairobi. Pease and Fook (2016) have further argued that political participation tends to be unevenly distributed among citizens. When considering political participation as the actions of citizens aimed at influencing the selection and/or actions of political representatives, it is important to acknowledge that inequalities in participation can have an impact on the policy issues that are prioritised. This, in turn, has the potential to perpetuate pre-existing economic and social inequalities (Almond & Verba, 2015). Therefore, the significance of broad-based political engagement stems from both its inherent democratic value and its relevance in addressing issues of inequality. The Rwandan government has shown a strong dedication at the highest echelons of leadership to advance the objective of fostering gender equality within the realm of democratic governance and political decision-making. The RPA administration, which assumed power in the elections subsequent to the 1994 genocide, has made a pledge to convert Rwanda into a nation characterised by tranquilly and economic success, while upholding the principles of legal governance and human rights. The new constitution of Rwanda, which was enacted in May 2003, makes reference to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and pledges to ensure the representation of women at a minimum of 30% (Mukhongo, 2015). The established quota has been not only achieved but also exceeded, as the representation of women in legislative seats now stands at about 49%, surpassing the percentage seen in any other parliament globally. This phenomenon might be partly ascribed to the perception among Rwandans that female politicians in government are more accessible and reliable compared to their male colleagues. According to Mukhongo (2015), there is a perception that they possess superior abilities in forgiving, reconciliation, and post-conflict peacebuilding. In the context of Kenya, it is noteworthy that women constitute a majority of the population, accounting for 52%. Consequently, it is evident that women in Kenya actively and significantly contribute to the country's growth. Kenya has a patriarchal social structure, whereby women occupy a comparatively inferior position characterised by prevalent gender disparity throughout several domains of Kenyan society. However, they continue to experience marginalisation and discrimination, which is perpetuated by current legislation, policies, and dominant socio-cultural influences. According to Mukhongo (2015), a constitutional amendment proposed in 2007 aimed at establishing 50 dedicated parliamentary seats for women was rejected owing to insufficient attendance to proceed with the voting process. Certain members of parliament have expressed the viewpoint that the establishment of reserved seats for women in parliamentary bodies does not guarantee complete political parity between genders. They contend that women should actively endeavour to secure a greater number of elected posts in order to achieve true gender equality in politics. Female candidates in Kenya encounter numerous challenges when attempting to participate in politics. These obstacles include limited access to campaign resources, insufficient information about the electorate, inadequate support from political parties, and societal rejection due to cultural norms that position women as subordinate individuals. Therefore, the researcher sought to the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya.

1.2 Statement of the problem

In the context of Kenya, the female population comprises slightly more than half of the overall population, and plays a crucial role in promoting the democratisation of the political system inside the nation. Nevertheless, the existing data suggests that their representation in political positions within the government is insufficient. One potential reason for this predicament might be the insufficient attention and rectification of gender problems in political politics. This provides an advantage to their masculine counterparts. Women are consistently marginalised in the realm of political leadership. Women experience a dual kind of marginalisation, as they face both gender-based discrimination and political marginalisation, resulting in a heightened sense of shame. Women are often denied access to political information. In the context of the 2002 general elections, it was observed that a significant number of female candidates were excluded from the nomination process. Women have challenges in expressing their wishes and asserting their autonomy in both their public and private spheres. Throughout history, there has been a prevailing perception that women are subordinate to males, lacking the ability to independently engage in political activities and relying on male support (Willis, 2015). According to the statistical data provided on the outcome of the 2013 general election in Kenya, a mere 16 female representatives were successfully elected as Members of Parliament (MPs) out of a total of 290 seats, constituting a proportion of 5.52% (Mati, 2015). The political parties affiliated with the national assembly have put out an additional five female candidates for nomination. The composition of the senate currently lacks elected female representatives, with only the inclusion of 16 nominated women. Additionally, two individuals, one representing the young and another representing the handicapped community, will be joining their ranks. According to the final list provided by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC), it is observed that all 47 governors are male (Mati, 2015). The electoral outcome in Nairobi County during the Kenya's General election on March 4th, 2013 saw a very low representation of women, with just five female candidates successfully securing seats. Among the 85 wards within Nairobi County, the representation of women was limited to just four wards via the electoral process. However, it is noteworthy that the assembly boasts a higher number of female members, with over 39 women being nominated to serve in this capacity. The common factors that limit women participation in political leadership are culture, poverty and patriarchal structures.

1.3       Objective of the study

The broad objective of the study is to assess the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya. The specific objectives is as follows

i.                    Assess the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya.

ii.                  Examine the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya.

iii.                Evaluate the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya.

1.3 Research questions

The following questions have been prepared for the study

i.                    What are the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya?

ii.                  What are the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya?

iii.                What are the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya?

1.6       Significance of the study

The findings of the study will be significant to the political elite in Kenya as it will reveal the need to involve more women into the political scene of the country so as to help with the societal development. As women have been seen to drive development no matter where they are placed to serve.

The findings of the study is significant to the academic community as it will contribute to the existing literature.

1.7       Scope of the study

The study focuses on  the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya. Hence, the study will assess the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya, examine the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya and evaluate the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya.

1.8       Limitations of the study

Like in every human endeavour, the researchers encountered slight constraints while carrying out the study. Insufficient funds tend to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature, or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire, and interview), which is why the researcher resorted to a moderate choice of sample size. More so, the researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. As a result, the amount of time spent on research will be reduced.

1.9       Definition of terms

Political participation: voluntary activities undertaken by the mass public to influence public policy, either directly or by affecting the selection

Politics:the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Despite the significant advancements made by women in other professional fields, the domain of politics has not shown commensurate improvement. Undoubtedly, women have been noticeably underrepresented in decision-making and policy formation inside governments worldwide. According to Feldman et al. (2015), the concept of political engagement encompasses a combination of official and informal avenues. In a comprehensive sense, civic engagement encompasses a deep understanding of the political framework and mechanisms for participation, such as the exercise of suffrage, active participation in grassroots campaigns and governing institutions, equitable representation in both national and local governance, and the unfettered ability to advocate for interests via lobbying and collective voting endeavours. When evaluating the extent of women's involvement in political activities, it is crucial to take into account their engagement in informal political endeavours, especially within the community context. This includes their active participation in social networks, women's organisations, and civil society, particularly in situations where official avenues for political engagement are less accessible to women (UNICEF, 2006). Political engagement may take the form of political expression, which encompasses the rights that women hold, both officially and informally, to voice their discontent within their political and social milieu and to actively participate in all aspects of the political system. Political engagement may manifest itself at several levels, including the individual, home, community, national, and international spheres. The involvement of individuals and households encompasses various factors such as understanding of the political system, support from domestic and marital partners for political participation, engagement in decision-making related to household economics, reproduction, and health, personal drive to participate in community-level organisations and civil society, and the inclination to exercise the right to vote. Community involvement encompasses many activities such as active engagement in village assemblies and local initiatives, active support for particular causes or legislative measures, and assuming roles of representation and leadership within the local governance structure (Feldman et al., 2015). According to Almond and Verba (2015), it has been suggested that women make up more than half of the global population and play significant roles in the overall progress of society. Within the majority of civilizations, women are often engaged in five primary roles: those of a mother, producer, house manager, community organiser, and socio-cultural and political activist. Among the positions stated, the last one has been influenced by women's movements, which may be traced to past instances of gender discrimination and injustice. Prior to the advent of these social movements, gender roles were traditionally delineated between individuals of the male and female sexes. The roles may be categorised into two main categories: productive gender roles and reproductive gender roles. According to Cheeseman (2016), there is an ongoing argument that productive gender roles are mostly linked with males, whereas reproductive gender roles are exclusively fulfilled by females. The aforementioned sociological phenomenon was intrinsically connected to the cultural ideologies and principles prevalent throughout many global nations. According to Gĩthĩnji's (2015) findings, there is a noticeable trend across countries in terms of gender equality and the cultural importance attributed to males. Certain domains of action are often seen as being primarily or largely associated with men, hence resulting in their perceived significance being unduly emphasised from a moral standpoint. One could inquire as to the reasons for the limited representation of women in the realm of politics, as well as the observed disparities among different nations globally. One often cited reason is that the limited involvement of women in political leadership may be attributed to cultural, religious, and patriarchal traditions. Several countries, including Sweden, Argentina, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda, have seen significant advancements in political representation (Mati, 2015). Regrettably, this assertion does not hold true for several nations, since progress has been markedly sluggish in these regions. Moreover, some segments of the public, religious factions, and governmental entities continue to exhibit overt opposition towards the concept of women assuming political leadership roles. When examining empirical data from Western nations, prominent theories about the gender disparity in participation often emphasise the presence of structural disparities in the distribution of individual resources. These theories frequently highlight female employment as a pivotal element in understanding this phenomenon. According to Mukhongo (2015) and Willis (2015),... Cultural differences often centre on religion as a primary focal point (Norris, 2009). Nevertheless, while the gender disparity in political engagement is gradually diminishing in Western nations (Cheeseman, 2015), the little available research suggests that significant gender variations in mass political participation persist in developing countries. Several recent studies have examined the patterns of political participation in Africa and have observed that women tend to engage in voting and political activities between elections to a lesser degree than men, as argued by Cheeseman (2015) and Kuenzi and Lambright (2010). However, there is limited understanding of the applicability of the commonly proposed explanations mentioned above to the specific context of Kenya, particularly in Nairobi. Pease and Fook (2016) have further argued that political participation tends to be unevenly distributed among citizens. When considering political participation as the actions of citizens aimed at influencing the selection and/or actions of political representatives, it is important to acknowledge that inequalities in participation can have an impact on the policy issues that are prioritised. This, in turn, has the potential to perpetuate pre-existing economic and social inequalities (Almond & Verba, 2015). Therefore, the significance of broad-based political engagement stems from both its inherent democratic value and its relevance in addressing issues of inequality. The Rwandan government has shown a strong dedication at the highest echelons of leadership to advance the objective of fostering gender equality within the realm of democratic governance and political decision-making. The RPA administration, which assumed power in the elections subsequent to the 1994 genocide, has made a pledge to convert Rwanda into a nation characterised by tranquilly and economic success, while upholding the principles of legal governance and human rights. The new constitution of Rwanda, which was enacted in May 2003, makes reference to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and pledges to ensure the representation of women at a minimum of 30% (Mukhongo, 2015). The established quota has been not only achieved but also exceeded, as the representation of women in legislative seats now stands at about 49%, surpassing the percentage seen in any other parliament globally. This phenomenon might be partly ascribed to the perception among Rwandans that female politicians in government are more accessible and reliable compared to their male colleagues. According to Mukhongo (2015), there is a perception that they possess superior abilities in forgiving, reconciliation, and post-conflict peacebuilding. In the context of Kenya, it is noteworthy that women constitute a majority of the population, accounting for 52%. Consequently, it is evident that women in Kenya actively and significantly contribute to the country's growth. Kenya has a patriarchal social structure, whereby women occupy a comparatively inferior position characterised by prevalent gender disparity throughout several domains of Kenyan society. However, they continue to experience marginalisation and discrimination, which is perpetuated by current legislation, policies, and dominant socio-cultural influences. According to Mukhongo (2015), a constitutional amendment proposed in 2007 aimed at establishing 50 dedicated parliamentary seats for women was rejected owing to insufficient attendance to proceed with the voting process. Certain members of parliament have expressed the viewpoint that the establishment of reserved seats for women in parliamentary bodies does not guarantee complete political parity between genders. They contend that women should actively endeavour to secure a greater number of elected posts in order to achieve true gender equality in politics. Female candidates in Kenya encounter numerous challenges when attempting to participate in politics. These obstacles include limited access to campaign resources, insufficient information about the electorate, inadequate support from political parties, and societal rejection due to cultural norms that position women as subordinate individuals. Therefore, the researcher sought to the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya.

1.2 Statement of the problem

In the context of Kenya, the female population comprises slightly more than half of the overall population, and plays a crucial role in promoting the democratisation of the political system inside the nation. Nevertheless, the existing data suggests that their representation in political positions within the government is insufficient. One potential reason for this predicament might be the insufficient attention and rectification of gender problems in political politics. This provides an advantage to their masculine counterparts. Women are consistently marginalised in the realm of political leadership. Women experience a dual kind of marginalisation, as they face both gender-based discrimination and political marginalisation, resulting in a heightened sense of shame. Women are often denied access to political information. In the context of the 2002 general elections, it was observed that a significant number of female candidates were excluded from the nomination process. Women have challenges in expressing their wishes and asserting their autonomy in both their public and private spheres. Throughout history, there has been a prevailing perception that women are subordinate to males, lacking the ability to independently engage in political activities and relying on male support (Willis, 2015). According to the statistical data provided on the outcome of the 2013 general election in Kenya, a mere 16 female representatives were successfully elected as Members of Parliament (MPs) out of a total of 290 seats, constituting a proportion of 5.52% (Mati, 2015). The political parties affiliated with the national assembly have put out an additional five female candidates for nomination. The composition of the senate currently lacks elected female representatives, with only the inclusion of 16 nominated women. Additionally, two individuals, one representing the young and another representing the handicapped community, will be joining their ranks. According to the final list provided by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC), it is observed that all 47 governors are male (Mati, 2015). The electoral outcome in Nairobi County during the Kenya's General election on March 4th, 2013 saw a very low representation of women, with just five female candidates successfully securing seats. Among the 85 wards within Nairobi County, the representation of women was limited to just four wards via the electoral process. However, it is noteworthy that the assembly boasts a higher number of female members, with over 39 women being nominated to serve in this capacity. The common factors that limit women participation in political leadership are culture, poverty and patriarchal structures.

1.3       Objective of the study

The broad objective of the study is to assess the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya. The specific objectives is as follows

i.                    Assess the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya.

ii.                  Examine the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya.

iii.                Evaluate the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya.

1.3 Research questions

The following questions have been prepared for the study

i.                    What are the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya?

ii.                  What are the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya?

iii.                What are the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya?

1.6       Significance of the study

The findings of the study will be significant to the political elite in Kenya as it will reveal the need to involve more women into the political scene of the country so as to help with the societal development. As women have been seen to drive development no matter where they are placed to serve.

The findings of the study is significant to the academic community as it will contribute to the existing literature.

1.7       Scope of the study

The study focuses on  the challenges of women participation in politics in Kenya. Hence, the study will assess the cultural barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya, examine the economic barriers limiting women  participation in politics in Kenya and evaluate the challenges facing women in the participation of politics in Kenya.

1.8       Limitations of the study

Like in every human endeavour, the researchers encountered slight constraints while carrying out the study. Insufficient funds tend to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature, or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire, and interview), which is why the researcher resorted to a moderate choice of sample size. More so, the researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. As a result, the amount of time spent on research will be reduced.

1.9       Definition of terms

Political participation: voluntary activities undertaken by the mass public to influence public policy, either directly or by affecting the selection

Politics:the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power.

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